Financiers, some who sailed near to or sometimes over the line.

 In my exploration of British manufacturing, I have come across many men whose technical expertise advanced the cause of British industry. There were also those who brought a different kind of expertise and perhaps a different outlook on life.

George Hudson - the railway king

George Hudson was one of these. He became a firm friend of George Stephenson and it was said that whilst Stephenson dreamed grand schemes for linking the country by railway, George Hudson found ways to enable such schemes, leaving to Stephenson the task of bringing them into reality.

Railway mania of which Hudson was a part was in many ways like those other kinds of financial mania - the dot com bubble, the crash that led to the credit crunch. The railways created by Stephenson had fired the imagination, so much so that groups around the country were putting together schemes for their own pet project. Those people with money to spare were only too keen to invest. Hudson and Stephenson could see that this mania needed to be tamed in order for a coherent rail net-work to emerge that served the interests of the country. This didn't mean that Hudson eschewed profit, far from it, just that he saw a bigger picture.

We need to take a step back to 1800 and the birth of George to a poor Yorkshire farming family. George was placed as an apprentice to a York grocer from which he went on to run his own grocery business. He married and fortune shone, for George unexpectedly inherited a large sum from a distant relative making him one of the wealthiest men in York. He used his new status to move into establishment circles, the Church and the Tory party. With these new connections he formed a joint-stock bank, the York Union. This led him to further contacts including Glyn's bank in London which was financing railways.

Richard Lambert, in his book The Railway King, researched his many schemes. I recount one of the first for the sake of illustration. The starting point was the London to Birmingham railway and George Stephenson's ambition for this to extend north to either Lancashire or Yorkshire ending up at his home city of Newcastle. As plans developed, the route from Birmingham to Leeds was favoured and here in stepped Hudson who argued for his home of York instead of Leeds. This plan failed to gain favour, but he did manage to secure a scheme to link York to the North Midland Railway which ran from Derby to Leeds. (The London to Birmingham line was linked to Derby via Rugby.) In time the North Midland Railway enjoyed east-west traffic, but Hudson saw on the horizon potential competition from four sequential lines linking Liverpool to Hull via Leeds. He managed to take a lease on the stretch from Leeds to Selby and promptly closed it, forcing traffic through York even though it was a longer journey. Freight could be carried on to Selby and the River Trent. Hudson had hoped to secure the railway from Selby to Hull. His failure to do so led him to re-instate the previous route by water thus crushing the owners of the Selby-Hull line. It was brutal business which caused Hudson to gather pockets of stiff competition to his schemes.

One of Hudson's York contemporaries was Joseph Rowntree who questioned the presentation of annual accounts for the North Midland and York Railway, and he asked that they should be audited. At the time it was only banks and insurance companies which required an audit, so his request was dismissed.

Lambert suggests that Hudson’s attention to four related areas brought to fruition his ambitions. First of all he sponsored individual railway projects. Second, he had to hand the means to finance them and links to brokers who could buy and sell shares to influence pricing when takeovers were required. Third, he owned land in Yorkshire which gave him status, but some of which was also useful in enabling his schemes and blocking those of competitors. The fourth strand was political at both a local and Westminster level, the latter being shepherding his favoured schemes through Parliament.

None of this was illegal, but those who lost money at his hands were naturally unforgiving and his reputation ended in tatters.

However, he was responsible for 1,450 of the 5,000 miles of railway which opened in 1849. He employed many thousands of people and enabled the cheap transport of coal which fired the industrial revolution.

Ernest Terah Hooley

Hooley’s biggest claim to fame,  or infamy, was the purchase of the Pneumatic Tyre Company for £3 million and its immediate floatation as the Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company for £5 million of which the Economist of 30 July 1898 wrote:

‘On the strength of the Dunlop deal, Mr Hooley came to be regarded as the Napoleon of Finance. At his word, Capital could be created by the million and fortunes could be made as if by a magician’s wand. There have been many successful company promoters, but Mr Hooley was to eclipse them all alike, in the variety of his schemes and in the gigantic profits provided by them not only for the great financier but that everybody connected with him.’

Ernest Terah Hooley was remarkable by any standards. He was the son of a Lacemaker from the Derbyshire town of Long Eaton. He began his career in his father’s business, but moved into stockbroking and, from there, into company promotion. In his ‘golden years’ he floated and made a personal fortune out of two other household names: Bovril and Schweppes. He died in 1947 in small house in College Street, Long Eaton. The obituaries tell of a man who rubbed shoulders with royalty and the good and the great of his time. They also tell of a man bankrupted more than once, and imprisoned for fraud, again, on more than one occasion. The Derby Daily Telegraph of 12 February 1947 said this:

‘From earning 30 shillings a week in his father’s lace mill, he became one of the most powerful financiers of the century, and so wealthy that it was said he owned £10 million worth of land in Great Britain. He owned Risley Hall in Derbyshire and, of more relevance to this story, developed Trafford Park Industrial Estate in Manchester, the first such estate in the country.’

Hooley features on the government insolvency service website as an example of a Victorian Scam.

Harry Lawson

‘He was probably no less scrupulous than many of the other remarkable characters who used other people’s money to amass vast fortunes for themselves in the City of London at the turn of the nineteenth century. On the credit side, those who worked for him said that he was both fair and generous. He was certainly not a greedy man who loved money for its own sake.’ ‘Bunty’ Scott-Moncrieff on H.J.Lawson

Described as ‘the crooked entrepreneur Harry Lawson’; the records do indeed show that he was prosecuted for fraud on at least two occasions (once along with Hooley). However, Lawson was perhaps the unlikely founder of British motor manufacturing, which, in turn, sowed the seeds for motor manufacturing in many countries of the world. I tell the story in How Britain Shaped the Manufacturing World of how he founded the British Daimler company in a former mill in Coventry.

Dudley Docker

I recall from a Goon Show (a BBC radio programme of the fifties and sixties) a mocking reference to a Lady Docker. I then found that Dudley Docker had master minded the creation of MetroVick. I put two and two together and came up with the wrong answer. Dudley was the father of Bernard, the socialite husband of the renowned lady, and a wholly different man.

Dudley grandfather, Thomas, had been a Moseley brass founder. His father, Ralph, was a solicitor who amassed public appointments in and around Birmingham, so much so that he was styled as ' the Lord High Everything of his district'. These were Victorians on a upward path.

Dudley was born in 1862 at his parent's home, Paxton House, 130 South Street Smethwick. He went to King Edward VI Grammar School, but didn't excel. He joined his father's office, but left two years. In 1881 he joined his elder brother, William, in a varnish business which at that time was a good trader with strong demand from the Birmingham japanning trade. Despite challenges, the business prospered and other brothers joined.

Cricket was the passion of the Docker Brothers. Ludford, known as the Local Leviathan, joined Derbyshire Cricket Club in 1881 and became captain in 1884. Dudley joined the newly created Warwickshire club, then a second division county unlike Derbyshire. Dudley played for them for a number of seasons.

Cricket opened doors, and the business prospered further. Docker Brothers became a limited company in 1899. Dudley amassed shareholdings and directorships in a number of growing Birmingham businesses. He married well. His wife Lucy came from a well connected family and she inherited a significant sum on her father's death. Dudley and Lucy had been living next to the varnish factory, but moved Coleshill House in the Chilterns which had been built by Roger Pratt during the Rule of the Commonwealth. They had one son, Bernard.

In 1902, Dudley and two brothers became directors of one of Britain biggest combines, the Metropolitan Amalgamated Carriage and Wagon company (later known by the initials of its subsequent name Metropolitan Carriage Wagon and Finance 'MCWF') and five years later that company amalgamated with the much smaller Docker Brothers. It was Dudley who had created MCWF by persuading five largely struggling wagon companies to join it in order to achieve Efficiency.

Efficiency was the Edwardian byword. The Boer War had humiliated the nation and so there was a public desire to do better, to become 'efficient'. The amalgamation confirmed that Dudley's vision of large integrated corporations was the right way forward. GKN and Stewarts & Lloyds were others. They were is stark contrast with the defensive amalgamations in the 1890 where companies joined in legal terms, but remained isolated in practice. In the event, the longstanding inefficiencies in the railway companies proved too much of a match for Dudley whose skills lay in finance and publicity.

The MCWF merger created a stir amongst the great and good of Birmingham and Dudley's reputation was riding high. By 1910, he thought he needed a boost and explored another potential merger, this time between BSA and Daimler. He had joined the BSA board in 1906 and had seen it struggle with its young motor vehicle business. He decided that it needed motor vehicle expertise which Daimler clearly had. Again, I write about this merger in How Britain Shaped the Manufacturing World (HBSTMW) but from a different source which identified further factors that made Daimler attractive: its significant land holding in Coventry. What both BSA and Daimler lacked were cash and management expertise. The merger was not a success. Dudley had created a financial structure that was complex, involving different classes of shares with different rights and, what proved crucial, a whole web of intracompany loans. Yet, Dudley still had more deals in his sights.

He saw that the opportunities which electrical engineering presented were being pursued by the Americans (General Electric and Westinghouse) and the Germans (Siemens and AEG), but not so the British. Here Ferranti and other British companies may have taken issue. In Dudley's view there were three options: create relationships with the Americans or Germans or join a multinational combination. What ever route, the result had to be big.

In the wake of the First World War, the Board of Vickers, the armaments company, could see that their near total commitment to war materiel made them vulnerable, and diversification was the order of the day. I wrote in HBSTMW the story of how Dudley Docker persuaded Douglas Vickers that railway rolling stock and electrical engineering were the coming industries. Vickers and MCWF both invested in the company that would become Metropolitan Vickers to buy British Westinghouse. It was a complex transaction that made Dudley a good deal of money and left Vickers with a combination they couldn't manage. I wrote of its unravelling in HBSTMW.

Dudley Docker went on to advise on international trust arrangements and to chair the first meeting of the General Committee of the Federation of British Industries which would become the CBI. He was an influencer, a deal maker, a publicist, but not a manager. That would be left to people like Ronald Weeks.

Further reading:

• Lambert, Richard S.,The Railway King - 1800-1871 - A Study of George Hudson and the business morals of the time (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1934)
• Davenport-Hines, R.P.T., Dudley Docker - the Life and Times of a Trade Warrior (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984)

London as a manufacturing place

Was London a manufacturing anomaly ? There were no raw materials, no coal and the weather didn't favour weaving. Yet, it was the centre of power. The rich wanted beautiful things and Londoners made them. Skills emerged and developed, which attracted more skills. Above all it was the major port.

The Thames offered a wonderful entry and exit point for London and had done since Roman times. In spite of a massive growth in the volume of trade, the 'legal docks' had remained largely as they had been in the time of Elizabeth I - a stretch of quays between London Bridge and the Tower of London, although a further area of river frontage on the south bank had been added and ships were often unloaded by lightermen whilst at anchor in the centre of the river.

The dock area was extended and trade boomed. The city and its surroundings attracted a vast variety of commercial activity.

A striking feature of this monster city in 1700 was its newness. In September 1666 some three-fifths of the City of London had been destroyed in the Great Fire. The losses were immense – 13,200 houses were burned to the ground and so were most of the great public buildings, including St Paul’s Cathedral and eighty-seven parish churches. Rebuilding the housing took well into the 1670s. The public buildings took longer – St Paul’s was not considered finished till 1711. Rebuilding was at a much-reduced density – some parish churches and livery company halls were never replaced and only around 9,000 houses filled the place of those lost. No more the narrow streets with closely packed thatched dwellings. We can thank Christopher Wren for the fine stone churches built in the classical style that can still be seen amongst the glass and steel of the 21st century city.

By 1700 it had a population estimated at 575,00 which grew to 900,000 a century later. It was by far the largest urban area in Britain having attracted migrants from neighbouring rural areas in search of work. In these early days inner London overlapped to the East and to the South.

As London grew, the banks of the Thames filled with manufacturing businesses attracted by the ease of receiving raw materials and dispatching finished goods. The docks would welcome ships arriving with cargoes from just about all over the world; ships too would leave with finished goods destined for lucrative overseas markets. The label ‘Made in London’ carried a cache the world over. It had been and still was a busy and diversified place with saw-mills, lead-smelting, paint and varnish works, iron and brass foundries and ships stores, chain and anchor works and sack, bag and canvas factories.

Much later, Joseph Rank saw the vast quantity of grain imports coming through London docks and saw the opportunity for flour mills which he built by the river. These worked alongside huge warehouses and markets. London had cornered world trade, for example Australian wool was shipped to London for onward sale. The domination in trade was mirrored and amplified in banking and finance where London took an unassailable lead until 1914.

The 18th century and earlier

Inner London

Where it all began with trade. Wool and silk occupied many Londoners as did clock-making and furniture. England’s population in 1651 is estimated at 5 million and mid-century nearly one fifth of the working population was employed in the manufacture of woollen cloth. London was by far the largest centre of population and so attracted a good share of the industry. Follow this link to discover more.

East London

Docklands and the East End. Trade needed ships and London built many. When I think of shipbuilding, I see in my minds eye the North-East or the Clyde. Yet, Thames shipyards, including four Naval Dockyards, built many thousands of ships over four centuries. We can think of East Indiamen setting sail for the spices of the east, or whalers, but more-so mail steamers, wherries and tea clippers. It was said that standing on Greenwich Hill you could see hundreds of yards stretching west to Chiswick and east towards the sea. With men like Maudslay, Thames yards were ahead of the game with steam power until the proximity of raw materials passed the advantage further north. Along with ships, London made armaments at Woolwich. Follow this link to discover more and this link to the Thames shipbuilders.

South London

Tanning by the Thames created a stink. Tanning took place in Bermondsey. The River Neckinger provided the water for the tanning pits. Slaughterhouses provided a constant supply of hides and there was ample oak bark for the tanning process. There were busy cobblers and cordwainers throughout; the cordwainers in particular were very protective of their craft. It was this trade that suffered as Northampton attracted London retailers by lower prices through lower wages. Flour and beer nourished the population. Huguenots produced more fine silk. Follow this link to discover more.

19th and 20th century

East London

With yet more trade, the docks expanded. Furniture making spread with the influx of skilled Jewish makers. The area around Shoreditch and the western end of Bethnal Green became in the words of Gerry White ‘something approaching one giant factory’. Other industries gathered further along the Thames. Read more in this link.

South London

Engineers made a bee-line for Lambeth to learn from the pioneer machine-tool maker, Henry Maudslay. In his book, London: A History, Francis Sheppard observes that ‘by the end of the eighteenth century, London had more steam engines than Lancashire’. Pharmaceuticals transformed lives, much loved toys delighted generations and the Stanley knife! The Lines Brothers factory at Merton was at one time the largest toy factory in the world. Read more in this link.

Inner London

Pianos were made in Islington. Mornington Crescent was home to the 'Black Cat' Carreras cigarettes factory built in an Egyptian style and later sold to Rothmans which manufactured in Darlington. Benson & Hedges were made in Oxford Street before production moved to Ballymena. Lambert and Butler were produced in Drury Lane. There were bicycle makers in Holborn and jewellers around Fitzrovia. Holborn was also home to George Kent and his household equipment including his famous knife cleaner. Burroughs Wellcome set up offices in Snow Hill, Holborn in the late 19th century. and then many of the basic needs of life. Many of the new industries were born in Inner London before they moved out to pastures new. Read more in this link.

North London

Manufacturing moved north from Inner London and there developed a raft of different industries from electronics to aircraft, furniture to motor components. Brimsdown, Enfield was the former home of the Edison Swan Laboratory. Joseph Swan moved from Newcastle where he developed the incandescent lamp and joined with the American Thomas Edison in exploiting their invention at Ponders End in 1886. They manufactured under the Mazda brand. I write of Edison in this blog. Working with him, Ambrose Fleming invented the first thermionic valve, a diode, from which the development of wireless grew. Also in Brimsdown was Cosmos, valve manufacturers. Read more in this link.

West London

American companies flocked to Western Avenue and the Great West Road. Our iconic aircraft were built in Kingston and then radar to spot their enemies. Addlestone became home to Plessey Radar after its takeover of Decca in the mid sixties. The marine radar part of the Decca was taken over by Racal and they had a manufacturing presence in New Maldon. New Malden is also home to BAE Systems visualisation, experimentation, and design. Sunbeam Talbot made motor cars in Ladbroke Hall (post image) Read more in this link.

Postscript

In his London in the Twentieth Century, a phrase from Jerry White stuck in my mind. ‘From the middle of the sixties London’s manufacturing industry virtually bled away, along with the port that fed it.’ He offers some telling figures: between 1959 and 1974 London lost 38% of its manufacturing jobs so by 1996 only 10% of the London workforce was employed in manufacturing.' A good deal of manufacturing moved to the north, east, west and south of London and in due course out to Metroland and into the South East.

The Quaker manufacturers

 English towns had grown up with trades run by guilds jealous of their position and associated with the Church of England and political establishment.

Quakers and other non-conformist churches thrived in smaller growing towns and we see notable businesses emerging from that background. There was the congregationalists Titus Salt in Bradford and William Lever in Liverpool, the Quakers including John and his sons George and Richard Cadbury in Birmingham, Joseph and his son Seebohm Rowntree in York, Joseph Fry in Bristol and Cyrus Clarke in Street. I write of Abraham Darby in Telford elsewhere.

It is worth stepping back to ask the question, why? Anne Vernon suggests that the closeness of the members of the Society of Friends created a grouping as close as the old aristocracy. That many members chose to go into business she explains was probably due to many other professions being barred. Thus men who may have been successful Generals, Admirals or Surgeons turned their talents to stocking shelves and satisfying customers. She also observes that many developed interests outside their business, so British Birds or Trollope novels!

Titus Salt

Titus Salt was born in the Old Manor House in Morley in Yorkshire in 1803 son of Daniel Salt who was in business as a white cloth merchant and drysalter. Balgarnie explains that the house no longer had a manor attached. Titus was the oldest of eight children, four boys and four girls and survived them all. He attended the Dame school in Morley. In 1813, Daniel moved his family to a farm three miles from Wakefield and initially prospered with the demand from the Napoleonic wars. Titus attended school in Wakefield where he was described as steady and attentive, but not a bright pupil. Nevertheless, Titus dreamed of a career in medicine until he discovered that he fainted at the sight of blood! What else? It turned out to be work with Mr Jackson of Wakefield in the woolstapling business.

Once peace returned, so did hard times in the fields and the family moved to Bradford and the business of wool at the time when the town was taking over the production of worsted from Norwich as mechanisation began to take hold. Titus found employment first with Messrs. Rouse. Titus inherited his strength and determination from his father and his piety and concern for mankind from his mother; he spent Sundays teaching and preaching.

Bradford was thriving and with it his father’s business, so much so that he took in Titus as a partner. Titus’ reputation for fair dealing and expertise with wool attracted many customers. He travelled around the country both to buy and sell. Lincolnshire wool proved suitable for fine worsted and on a visit to Grimsby he met Caroline Whitlam whom he married. He built mills for spinning and then added weaving. His discovery of the use of alpaca wool added to the fineness of his cloth and revolutionised the Bradford wool industry.

Titus worked hard in the business. For the less fortunate of Bradford, unemployment hit and added to the misery of overcrowding and poor sanitation. Titus resolved that he must move his businesses to an uncrowded site where everything could be housed in the same place with employees having decent living conditions. This resolution became reality at Saltaire with the help of William Fairbairn.

Titus was created Baronet in 1869. He died in 1876. During his life he gave considerable sums to charity and served the Bradford community in local government.

William Lever

William was born in 1851 in Bolton into a lower middle class family in a town suffering from dreadful overcrowding. William's father was a grocer who moved into wholesale among whose range of goods included soap manufactured by a number of local firms.

Soap was very much a consequence of the Industrial Revolution. As towns became crowded and polluted more people needed to wash. Interestingly the shortage of water restricted the use of soap, but as better water supplies were installed so the demand for soap increased.

Soap had traditionally been made from combining tallow with an alkali, normally the ash from burnt bracken. Increased demand added vegetable oils to tallow and the fruits of the Le Blanc process as a substitute for bracken ash. Soap works appeared mainly near ports where vegetable oils were imported. In the northwest there were amongst others Gossage in Widnes and Crosfield in Warrington

William joined his father in the business and in due course became a salesman and successfully developed the business into nearby Wigan. His father was impressed and invited William to join him as a partner. William knew he needed to stand out from the crowd and created the trade mark ‘Sunlight’ which he applied to soap manufactured specially for Levers.

The time came for him to take manufacturing in-house and he took a six years lease on the soap works of Wainwright, Winser & Company in Warrington. Winser and Wainwright turned out to be even more valuable than the works. Winser was a chemist and added a vital technical input. Wainwright was a soap boiler and he and his sons became the heart of the soap boiling expertise. The premises in Warrington soon became too small and so new site was needed. This was Port Sunlight between the Mersey and the Birkenhead to Chester railway. There was Bromborough Pool to receive cargoes and plenty of space for the soap works, a village for his employees with enough held in reserve for expansion.

In 1918-1919, William Lever bought the Scottish islands of Lewis and Harris and wished to support their fishing industry. This he did by giving it a clearer route to market by founding the MacFisheries chain of high street fishmongers.

In 1917, William became Baron Leverhulmne and five years later Viscount Leverhulmne. William died in 1925 and by his will created the Leverhulmne Trust which now funds a great deal of research.

The Lever Brothers business continued to grow and in 1930 combined with the Dutch Margarine Unie creating Unilever.

John, George and Richard Cadbury

The Cadbury family traces its origins to Somerset from where Richard Tapper Cadbury born in 1768 to Joel and Sarah travelled to Gloucester to be apprenticed as a draper and then to Birmingham where he started business in partnership as a draper. Joel was a woolcomber who had joined the Society of Friends

John was Richard's third son and was sent to Leeds to learn the tea trade. John returned to Birmingham and in 1824 set up as a Tea dealer and Coffee roaster. There is evidence of him trading also in cocoa. In time the cocoa business grew and he was selling a number of cocoa based products. He moved premises and began further processing of the cocoa bean extracting cocoa butter and adding sugar and other ingredients. John was an energetic man devoted to his Faith which extended to the Temperence movement. Like his father, he played his part in the Birmingham community with particular concern for the less well off. He was by any standards a good employer. In 1847, he joined with his elder brother, Benjamin Head Cadbury, in the form Cadbury Brothers which moved to yet larger premises on Bridge Street. Seven years later the business opened its first London office at 148 1/2 Fenchurch Street.

In 1855, John Cadbury's second wife, Candia, died leaving John bereft. He contracted rheumatic fever and went into decline taking the business with him. As fortune would have it, his sons Richard and George although young at 25 and 21 respectively took over the running of the business. Their commitment to sound business ethics is evidenced by their agreement to close the business should it at any time become unable to pay its creditors in full. There is a further link to Quaker communities for George worked for a time in Rowntrees in York.

It took five years of reducing losses, which they financed themselves, to turn the business round. They invested further in mechanisation, buying the latest machine from Holland which enabled them to make Cocoa Essence which proved popular. Yet more popular was pure unadulterated cocoa; 'if customers wanted to add sugar they could quite well add it themselves'.

It wasn’t until 1878 that they moved production to Bourneville, four miles from the city centre, conceived as a place where employees could live near their work, but away from the overcrowding of the city. As George Cadbury put it, “no man ought to be condemned to live where a rose cannot grow”. John Cadbury had become interested in the Model Parish Mission whose object it was to establish a parish without drinking facilities and having 'Model Schools, Villas, cottages, Farms, Allotments and Factory. For the Cadburys this took form at Bourneville. Just as an aside, its seems that many of the Cadburys had been cricket lovers; the fine pavilion at Bourneville is thus an appropriate memorial.

Joseph Rowntree

Joseph Rowntree was born in 1836, son of a York grocer and Sarah Stephenson of Manchester. The shop on the Pavement flourished. Joseph's father, also Joseph, took on apprentices who lived with the family above the shop. It was an extended family who would pursue hobbies and read widely. The family had been Quakers for generations and with this came a community. Joseph and his brother were educated at home until age eleven when they went to the Society of Friends school where Joseph blossomed. In early teenage, Joseph and his brother were taken by their father to Ireland where they witnessed the horrors of the famine, an image that would stay with Joseph for life. He would later make a study of the conditions of the poor in Britain.

In due course Joseph began to work in the shop and learn the secrets of the grocery trade. When Joseph was 23 his father died and he and his brother John took over the running of the business. Joseph also married Julia Seebohm from Bradford, they had one daughter. Tragically Julia died only three years later. Joseph married again and he and Antoinette had a son, John, a daughter and another son Benjamin Seebohm (always known as Seebohm) followed. On the birth of his first son, Joseph left the grocery business and joined his younger brother Henry in the Cocoa, Chocolate and Chicory Works.

Joseph brought his management skills to the chocolate business. Life was hard, but by the 1880s the business now called Rowntree had 200 employees and had introduced a French product of crystallised gums. Joseph also had contact with Cadbury and learnt of their Dutch machinery for chocolate making. Other companies were beginning to advertise, but Joseph was disinclined. His brother died leaving Joseph in sole charge. Joseph cared passionately about the welfare of his employees and ensured that this policy continued when growth required a move to larger premises.

I tell the later story of Rowntree in How Britain Shaped the Manufacturing World the role his son, Seebohm, played in developing management practice.

People in trade were looked down upon. The world had been different before the industrial revolution where the Merchant Companies had been respected. The coming of the mills changed all this; owners exploited their workers and the owners were regarded as something less than equals by those with old money. Rowntree was committed to his employees and concerned for the wider world and that was what mattered.

In 1904 Joseph set up three trusts:

• The Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust
• The Joseph Rowntree Reform Trust
• The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (originally the Joseph Rowntree Village Trust)

The village trust owned the land bought for the new village of New Earswick which Joseph conceived as a mixed community, but with a proportion of houses affordable by low paid workers. He strove for good conditions and amenities. L.E. Waddilove's book One Man's Vision tells the story.

Joseph died in 1925.

Joseph Fry

Joseph Fry was born into a Quaker family in Wiltshire in 1728 and arrived in Bristol in 1753 setting up as an apothecary. He sold cocoa beans for their medicinal value and as an alternative to alcohol. In time, he employed a water powered roller to crush the beans into a powder which could be added to water as a drink. Joseph died in 1787 and the business was taken over by his widow Anne and their son Joseph. They made further innovations including switching from water power to a Watt steam engine capable to producing a finer powder; a roasting machine followed. In the mid nineteenth century he combined cocoa powder with sugar and cocoa oil to produce a chocolate bar. In the 1820s, Frys accounted for 40% of the cocoa imported into Britain.

Fry and Cadbury merged in 1918, but it was only in the first decade of the twentieth century that Cadbury's sales had exceeded those of Fry.

The Fry family became involved in import of cocoa in the mid eighteenth century. Cocoa beans at that time were sourced from the Caribbean and so grown by slave labour. There is however no evidence that the Frys owned slaves. The same appears to be true of Rowntree. Slavery did of course also feature in tobacco and sugar, but most of all cotton.

Cyrus Clark

Cyrus Clark was born in 1801 son of a Quaker farmer. In 1821 he entered a partnership with Arthur Clothier as tanners, fellmongers and woolstaplers. Four years later Clothier took the tanning business leaving the remainder with Cyrus. He and his brother James became known for sheepskin rugs. From this base, using offcuts, they made sheepskin slippers known as Brown Petersburghs. By 1842, they had become popular, achieving sales of 1,000 a week. All this was done, without a factory, by outworkers.

In 1863, Cryus and James passed the business to James's youngest son William who continued to run the business with a Quaker ethos. Times were hard and William knew he had to move to factory based machine production. This he did with the help of the Quaker community. Clarks played their part and contributed generously to the Street community where the factory was set up. They provided schooling for their younger employees.

The company thrived and was passed down the generations. The 1950s proved to be the boom time with some 15 factories being added to the Street production capacity.

Further reading:

• Balgarnie, Robert, Sir Titus Salt, Baronet, his life and its lessons (London: Hodder and Stroughton, 1878)
• Vernon, Anne, A Quaker Business Man - the Life of Joseph Rowntree 1836-1925 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958)
• Wilson, Charles, The History of Unilever part 1 (London: Cassell & Company, 1954)
• The website Quakers in the World
• Williams, Iola A., The Firm of Cadbury 1831-1931 (London: Constable and Co Ltd, 1931)

Link to Amazon to explore this:

East Anglia manufacturing history

 A predominantly agricultural region with historically a heritage of farm equipment manufacture. The presence of one of the world's top universities is of course significant. In much earlier history East Anglia was impacted by invasions from Rome and then Anglo-Saxons, Danes and William the Conqueror. Later it benefitted from successive influxes of Flemish weavers and Huguenots. Each of these invasions left their beneficial mark not least at Sutton Hoo near Ipswich.

Cambridge

The University is a major collaborator with British industry. It was from where ARM came. Read more in this link.

King’s Lynn

A fishing port for many centuries. British Sugar has a large factory at nearby Wissington

Great Yarmouth

Where the American Birds Eye began freezing fish in Britain. It became part of Unilever.

Lowestoft

Home to one of the Pye Radio factories. At nearby Bungay, Clays print books. Birds Eye frozen vegetables factory now owned by Nomad Foods.

Norwich

One of the great early wool towns. Home to Norvic Shoes and a centre of shoe making. The Boulton Aircraft company developed from a woodworking firm. The company was re-established in Wolverhampton in 1936 as Boulton Paul and in 1961 joined Dowty Group. Mackintosh of Halifax bought AJ Caley of Norwich and there developed Quality Street and Rolo. You can find more by following this link.

Thetford

Charles Burrell Ltd were the largest employer in Thetford and at one time were the largest manufacturer of traction engines in the world. In 1919 they joined Agricultural and General Engineers and when that company failed in 1932, Burrells closed with the loss of many jobs. Fisons first set up here.

Ipswich

Ransomes were the biggest employers and Fisons main factory was here having originated in nearby Thetford. I tell more by following this link.

Harwich and Felixstowe

Together with Ipswich, these are known as the three Haven ports on the North Sea thanks to their deep harbours.

Colchester

Thought to be the first English town a century before the Romans. A wool town in the middle ages and in the nineteenth century a centre of mechanical engineering with Paxman engines and Crompton's dynamos. You can read much more by following this link.

Southend on Sea

Ekco built a factory here in 1930 to manufacture radio and plastics. As I observed in the design review of the Festival of Britain, EK Cole was especially good at diversifying. In the Second World War, Ekco’s factory at Southend was considered too vulnerable to air attack and so they relocated in part to Aylesbury, and, in part, to a 19th century mansion near Malmesbury in Wiltshire. They made radio for bombers and airborne radars and walkie-talkies for infantry.

Basildon

The neighbouring village of Fobbing was where the Peasant's Revolt began in 1381 with Wat Tyler leading a march on London. Basildon is a town with a distinctly agricultural heritage and which moved into the twentieth century with brick works producing seven million bricks a year. The works were used by the military during the First World War and thereafter were dismantled. It was designated a new town after the Second World War. New Holland tractors set up in 1964 and Marconi manufactured here. Read more by following this link.

Brentwood

Ilford Ltd opened a factory producing dry photographic plates in Great Worley.

Billericay

Home to one of three Marconi components factories (the others at Wembley and Hackbridge, Surrey)

Braintree

Samuel Courtauld began with a silk mill making mourning clothing. Read more about silk and Braintree but following this link.

Chelmsford

In nearby Great Baddow there is the BAE Systems AI laboratories, formerly the Marconi Research Centre. GEC Marconi had a big manufacturing presence in the town with Radar and Communications. You can read much more by following this link.

Ilford

Plessey manufactured radio components and a large range of electronics. You can read more by following this link

Langford

Home to CML Microsystems set up in 1968 and now with a worldwide market.

Sudbury

Lucas diesel components were made here. It has the last British silk weavers. I tell more in my blog piece on Braintree.

Brantham

The early British plastics manufacturer moved production of Halex from Hackney.

East Midlands manufacturing history

 Textiles and footwear. Engineering built on an agricultural heritage and steel based on ore in Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. The image is of Lincoln Cathedral.

Nottinghamshire

Nottingham

One of the five towns of the Danelaw. Hosiery was centred on the East Midlands and so Nottingham along with Derby and Leicester. This led to framework knitting and then to Nottingham lace. I write about framework knitting in the page on Leicester (below). Nottingham suffered from dreadful overcrowding and this combined with a decline in the hosiery trade after the Napoleonic wars led to the action of the Luddites.

The city was home to Jesse Boot and pharmaceuticals, Raleigh Bicycles (later part of TI plc) and Stanton and Staveley steel and spun pipes (formerly part of British Steel and before that Stewarts & Lloyds). It was also home to John Player cigarettes and a good deal of Courtaulds and other textile manufacturers. Follow this link to read more about Nottingham.

Long Eaton

Long Eaton was home to lace making and furniture. In the late 19th century three large tenement lace mills were built one financed by the notorious financier Ernest Terah Hooley who was born in the town. You can read more about long Eaton manufacturing in this link.

Beeston

Just outside Nottingham, Beeston was home to Plessey Telecommunication following their purchase of Ericcson. Long before then it was home to the Humber Company before their move to Coventry. It was the vacant Humber factory that in 1901 was occupied by the National Telephone Company (later taken over by British Ericcson) to manufacture telephone equipment under licence from the American Bell and Edison. Nearby Chilwell had been home to a massive shell filling factory in the First World War and I wrote of this in Ordnance. In the Second World War it became home to the Army Centre for Mechanisation of which I wrote in War on Wheels.

Sutton in Ashfield

A coal mining town which became home to hosiery manufacturer, Pretty Polly. Parker-Knoll upholstery moved here

Mansfield

William Hollins set up its mill in Pleasley that same year, attracted by the availability of water and a climate kept damp by the number of trees. Labour was provided by a workhouse; many of the workers were children
At the Great Exhibition of 1851 I noted that William Hollins of Mansfield in Nottinghamshire exhibited both cotton and wool which when combined was patented as Viyella.

Worksop

One of the major producers of liquorice. Home also to hat making and furniture. Also Sharwoods, owned by RHM and then Premier Foods, make their famous curry sauces.

Newark

Home to British Sugar, later part of Associated British Food. Home to Worthington Simpson Pumps, later part of a joint venture between Ingersol-Rand and Dresser Pumps. Ransome and Marles Bearing Co became part of Ransome Hoffman Pollard bearings formed at the initiative of the IRC in the sixties. It became a subsidiary of Ingersol-Rand. After a management buy out, the bearings business eventually became part of the Japanese NSK.

Leicestershire

Leicester

One of the five towns of the Danelaw. Leicester embraced hosiery and foot wear from which came engineering to mechanise those industries, and then much more. Follow this link to read more of Leicester's manufacturing history and framework knitters.

Ashby de la Zouch

United Biscuits produce McVitie, Crawford and McCoy's biscuits and snacks

Hinckley

The first stocking making machine was used in the town in the mid seventeenth century. Much more recently Hinckley is home to a new factory manufacturing Triumph Motor Cycles.

Ibstock

The company began in 1825 as a colliery, but refocused on bricks with annual production of 3 million in 1914, 10 million in 1939 and 18 million in 1946. Ibstock Brick became a punlic company in 1963. By 1990 it had 5,000 employees expanded through acquisition including Redland and Tarmac brick businesses. The business weas bought by CHR but then sold to management in 2015. It was then re-floated. Its Eclipse factory near Leicester was opened in 2018.

Loughborough

Home to Brush Electric Machines . I write of the American Brush Company in my blog on American electricity. The British Brush company operated first in London but grew out of its premises and looked for a suitable place for expansion. The site selected was in Loughborough next to the Midland Railway where the Falcon Engineering Works had been built by Henry Hughes who had begun by building carriages, railways carriage and eventually steam locomotives. Brush Electrical Engineering became a major manufacturer of electric powered locomotives whilst continuing with steam locomotive particularly for export markets. Ladybird produce their children's books in the town. Nearby Mountsorrel became home in 1941 to the Alvis workforce relocated from Coventry after the bombing of 14 November 1940. After the war the factory was bought by Rolls-Royce and only closed in 1994. British Gypsum producing plasterboard is at East Leake, now owned by St Gobain.

Market Harborough

Summingtons made Liberty corsets and the famous Liberty bodice.

Melton Mowbray

Promoted as the food capital of England, this market town is home to Samworth Brothers makers of sandwiches and porkpies and Clawson Dairy makers of Stilton and other cheeses. Until 2000, the neighbouring village of Old Dalby was home to the army depot maintaining our missiles. Mars chose the town for its Pedigree Petfood factory. Stanton & Stavely had an iron works manufacturing fitments and manhole covers at Holwell just outside Melton.

Derbyshire

Derby

One of the five towns of the Danelaw. Home to Rolls-Royce, railway and engineering history. I tell more about the city's manufacturing story with the help of a visit to the Derby museum of making.

Spondon

In 1923 British Cellulose had changed its name to British Celanese and by the 1930s was producing Celanese filament yarn well suited to the fashions of the twenties and thirties. Its acetate drape was being used in competition with silk. British Celanese was later bought by Courtaulds. In the Second World War, British Celanese manufactured parachutes and underclothing. By the end of the war, they employed 20,000 people. In conjunction with Courtaulds, ICI formed British Nylon Spinners to exploit the Du Pont patent of Nylon for the manufacture of parachutes.

Belper

Was home to Glowworm and Parkray boilers, part of TI plc and then Hepworth Ceramic plc.

Langley Mill

The Valley works became a shadow factory producing a variety of armaments. It was then repurposed by Vic Hallam to manufacture prefabricated buildings. Aristoc manufactured silk hosiery and GR Turner manufactured wagons.

Chesterfield

John Robinson set up a business here in 1839 making pill boxes. In the fifties the company patented the first disposable nappies and now as Robinson plc make a whole range of packaging material.

Burton on Trent

At one time it was home to thirty breweries. The Branston pickle factory was repurposed as a Central Ordnance Depot for Army clothing in the Second World War. Read more in this link.

Burnaston

Toyota built a plant here in the early 1990s to manufacture motor cars for the UK and European market

Cromford

Richard Arkwright’s water frame massively increased the speed of spinning cotton. Cromford is the site of his first factory and also John Smedley wool knitters.

Alfreton

Home to Thornton's Chocolates founded in Sheffield in 1911. Butterley was an engineering company at nearby Ripley and produced cast iron (for St Pancras Station and the Falkirk Wheel) and bricks, the latter became part of Hanson and then Heidelberg Cement. The engineering business was bought by Slater Walker and merged with Crittall. Read more in this link. Also nearby is the Denby Pottery.

High Peak

Home to Swizzles Matlow.

Northamptonshire

Northampton

New Town designated in 1968. Home to boot-making, becoming busy during the First World War with huge demand from the army. From this came shoe making which now is at the quality end of the market with Churches. The town was home to Express Lifts, Britain's largest manufacturer of lifts, and their test tower built in 1982 is now a listed building. I tell more in this blog.

Corby

A new town designated after the Second World War in 1950. Stewarts and Lloyds in effect relocated their steel making in the interwar years but steel production ceased in the eighties. Tata Steel has a presence in the town manufacturing thin walled tube. I tell more in this blog.

Kettering

This was a home to footwear manufacturing along with Northampton. Weetabix is made at nearby Burton Latimer

Wellingborough

Another footwear town also home to flour mills. Read more by following this link.

Irthlingborough

Home to Whitworth's dried fruit and to the Lantern Tower on St Peter's Church which was built as a beacon to guide travellers through the 'treacherous' Nene Valley

Daventry

Cummins Inc power systems factory was set up here and combines with their UK logistics centre. Home to DIRFT, the International Rail Freight Terminal. At nearby Long Buckby is McLaren automotive.

Peterborough

New Town designated in 1967. A deeply agricultural town which embraced engineering as I tell more in this blog.

Lincolnshire

Lincoln

The Romans installed garrisons at strategic towns across England and Lincoln was one. One of the five towns of the Danelaw. William the Conqueror built a castle and cathedral and the town was one of the largest in medieval England, wealthy from wool. More recently famous for its cathedral and relationship with the RAF and Bomber Command. Follow the link to Lincoln's manufacturing story

Grantham

An engineering town. You can read about it in this blog.

Scunthorpe

Home to United Steel Companies (Lincolnshire) now renamed British Steel and owned by the Chinese. I write more in this blog.

Stamford

One of the five towns of the Danelaw. A town famous for the Cecil family to whom we owe thanks for British patent law. The town, in its later years, attracted engineering. You can read more in this blog.

Boston

An ancient town with a busy port. In a county where chickens were grown in the hundreds of thousands Fogarty took advantage of byproduct of feathers for their pillows and duvets. Deep in farming country there is currently a plan to build a factory for a vegan food processor. Greencore produce prepared salads and vegetables.

Spalding

Home to vegetable processors including Greencore and FreshLinc.

Long Sutton

Home to Princes largest vegetable processing plant

Grimsby

Known for its fish as early as the thirteenth century. Fishing and fish processing dominated the town in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. In nearby Caistor, Sealord (now Japanese owned) make high end fish fingers for Waitrose.

Humberside

The south bank of the Humber was and is home to much heavy chemical industry. British Titan Products built a factory on the Pyewipe industrial estate on the outskirts of Grimsby. They were followed by Laporte also with titanium dioxide, Dunlop with industrial hoses, Ciba Chemicals and Courtaulds with man made fibre. Fisons had a factory at Immingham.

Stafford manufacturing history

 A power house of British electrical engineering, Stafford was of course a shire town but one that was soon outgrown by other towns in its county. One reason was that the man road route following the course of the Trent by-passed it. When the canals came they too passed it by until a passage was created by dredging the river Sow and adding an canalised section.

The tradespeople of Stafford carried on the common trades, but slowly a larger group emerged whose business was making shoes. The wearing of shoes had become more common in London, the growing industrial towns and the colonies and so a strengthening demand developed for Stafford's shoe makers. In his book Stafford Past, Roy Lewis suggests that one name drew ahead of the field, that of William Horton. In many ways like Manchester cotton merchants, he had a network of outworkers for whom his workshop would cut the leather for soles and uppers and the outworkers would stitch them and return them to him for payment and the next batch of leather. At one time he is said to have had one thousand outworkers. Finished shoes would be despatched by canal to the growing urban areas. The Napoleonic wars boosted demand but then competition from the lower paid Northampton shoe makers attracted trade away.

Railways did not pass Stafford by, rather the town became something of a hub for Staffordshire's part in the growing rail network. Workshops were set up and successive stations built. More significantly the town embraced massive marshalling yards where wagons arrived and were despatched right around the country. Not surprisingly locomotive manufacture took hold and W.G. Bagnall emerged as a leader.

As with the other shoe towns, the advent of American sewing machines for shoes led first to strikes as men refused to work on machine stitched leather. In time, as elsewhere, machines became a fixture along with factory production. Stafford's factories found themselves specialising in women's shoes and the firm Lotus became the best known of Stafford's factories. As elsewhere, foreign competition shrank the workforce to one or two specialised factories.

Supporting the shoe making trade, there emerged a cohort of manufacturers of the equipment needed to make shoes but also the packaging, laces and polish the wearer would need. The British United Shoe Machinery Company was set up by its American counterpart and took over the shoe related business of W.H. Dorman. This company would move into motor vehicles with the Redbridge Motor Works and aero engines with Adams. In the First World War they developed the interrupter gear that enabled machines guns to fire between the blades of a spinning propeller. After the war, the company built its first diesel engines. In 1959 it acquired W.G Bagnall and two years later became part of the English Electric. Later still it would join with Perkins diesels of Peterborough.

At the start of the twentieth century, Stafford attracted the British Siemens Brithers whose premises at Woolwich were becoming too small to house both its cable manufacture and its business of dynamos and electric motors. It was these latter two which Siemens moved to Stafford. Siemens Dynamo works later joined the group of companies which in 1919 formed English Electric. I write of this in How Britain Shaped the Manufacturing World.

Roy Lewis writes of the arrival in 1930 of George Nelson as managing director of English Electric and how he encouraged its growth in a very hands on way, his home being through a garden gate in the factory fencing. The Second World War saw the factory produce tanks, bombs and a range of electrical equipment. In 1960 the company opened a new transformer factory and in 1968 merged with GEC. I write of this in Vehicles to Vaccines. In 2015 the Stafford Grid and Power businesses became part of the American General Electric, now GE Vernova, which is working on high voltage transmission for the transition to net zero.

Stafford was also home to British Reinforced Concrete Engineering Company and in the Stafford Salt and Alkali Company.

Further reading

• Roy Lewis, Stafford Past (Chichester: Phillimore, 1997)
• J.D. Scott, Siemens Brothers 1858-1958 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1958) [printed by Jarrold in Norwich]

Norwich manufacturing history

The second largest city in Britain at the start of the eighteen century made wealthy by wool, Norwich, with a population of 30,000, was a city of spinners, wool-combers and weavers.

The principal product was worsted cloth. To this were added worsted made of wool and silk to make it softer and so offer competition to Indian cashmere, and later wool and cotton worsted. Norwich won business from Exeter through its lower wages, but then Yorkshire won over Norwich for the same reason. By the end of the century Norwich was dependent upon export sales via the East India company and, when these ceased in the early nineteenth century, Norwich's wool workers were destitute. They had long resisted mechanisation but eventually relented. The trade did revive but never to its former level. In 1961, there were 10,000 employed in the clothing trade around about the same number as in shoe making.

In 1800, there had been cordwainers making shoes and boots in the city for decades, but wool had always been the dominant trade. With wool's decline and increased demand for shoes from London, the colonies and the growing industrial towns, Norwich began its journey to become a centre of shoemaking, particularly for women. The earliest recorded shoe manufacturer was James Southall & Co in 1792. In terms of other activity, Gurney's Bank (later part of Barclays) was founded 1775 and Hills and Underwood vinegar maker in 1762.

In 1846 Norwich became the last major city to be connected to the growing railway net work. This facilitated further growth in shoe making, with Norwich becoming, so Frank Meeres suggests in his A History of Norwich, the fourth largest shoe city in Britain. Norvic shoes was a celebrated brand for women's footwear and one of the first to embrace advertising. This company, formed by the older Howlett and White, made many thousand of boots and shoes for the armed forces in both world wars. One Norvic speciality was sports shoes including running spikes.

The commercial strength of Norwich was in the diversity of its industry. Boulton and Paul manufactured all manner of product from wood including aircraft, at one time employing 1,300. Jewson Timber Merchants were founded in Norwich. Barnard, Bishop and Barnard invented a machine for making wire netting which sold all over the world. The company later became part of Tinsley Wire of Sheffield. Laurence, Scott and Electromotors embraced electricity and made dynamos and electric motors with a workforce at one time of 3,500. The company still manufactures in the city but was bought by the Austrian ATB in 2007 and now is financed by the Chinese Wolong. Coleman's mustard business was founded in 1804 and by 1900 had 2,000 employees. Coleman merged with the Recketts of Hull in 1938. As I told in my blog on Halifax, Mackintosh bought the Norwich chocolate maker, AJ Caley. Elsewhere the Norwich Union insurance company was founded in 1806. HMSO moved to Norwich in 1968 but closed in 1996. The publisher Jarrold moved to Norwich in 1823 and still publishes from the city.

Further reading

Frank Meers, A History of Norwich (Stroud: Phillimore, 1998)

Northampton manufacturing history

 In my perambulation around the manufacturing towns of Britain, I have normally found the presence of raw materials and water, ideally navigable. Northampton had no coal nearby and its river, the Nene, was only navigable some miles toward the sea. It was, though, on road routes from London to the north and so enjoyed the trade from passing coaches, much like Stamford. Unlike Stamford, it was the shire town and carried on all the administrative functions. It was in the middle of livestock farming country and so had a market, but also access to hides, of which more later.

Poor communications were hard to address. The Grand Junction Canal passed the town by as did the north-south railway. Anyone visiting Northampton by canal boat will know well the reason: the link from the Nene to the Grand Junction Canal demands some seventeen locks to descend one hundred and twenty feet. This link to the canal system completed in 1815 did open the town to more trade and that is where hides come in.

It was of course the shoe making industry that provided the economic growth that Northampton needed. It was a cottage industry, but quite substantial. Boots and shoes were made for the local market, but also further afield including the plantations of the West Indies. The Peninsula war created a strong demand for boots for Wellington's army. A strike by London boot makers added significantly to Northampton's business since wage rates were much lower. It wasn't only boots, it was said the Northampton lace was superior to that made in Nottingham.

The railways were a bone of contention. Land owners hated them; townsfolk knew they would be good for business. They were also not very good on steep inclines like that up from Northampton. For this reason Robert Stephenson chose to route the London Birmingham railway around the town. Nevertheless, the town did get a railway in 1845, linking it both to Peterborough and to the London Birmingham line. This enabled the cheaper import of coal and export of agricultural produce and footwear.

The footwear industry did take off, but still in small cottage units except for a very few factory employers such as William Parker and John Groom each producing 80,000 pairs of footwear a year with 800 employees. Moses Philip Manfield was not far behind. Their employees were said to be better off than their home working counterparts, given the opportunities the factories had for better ventilation of noxious fumes. Child labour was more prevalent in smaller businesses, indeed schools tried to include work based learning in their timetables.

The mid-point of the century brought to Northampton, as elsewhere, the issue of mechanisation. With footwear production it was the American invention of a sewing machine for shoes. The fear, as elsewhere, was the loss of jobs, particularly for men since the view was that women could manage sewing machines. A little later, machines for riveting soles were on offer, but not enthusiastically welcomed by masters for in the beginning they proved slower and less reliable than hand work. Finally machines to stitch soles to uppers came along and the battle was lost; the industry had become mechanised. Interestingly it seems that home working continued, but with machines in the home. It seems also that this was the case in Wellingborough and Kettering as well as Northampton and its surrounding villages.

The turn of the twentieth century witnessed a great change. Home working was nearly a thing of the past. Manfield, run by Moses's sons, employed 1,000 men and women in a single story building. Crocket & Jones and Truform (part of Sears & So) employed about the same number. Charles and Edward Lewis employed nearer 1,500, whilst Barratts were still comparatively new but distinctly ambitious. Church & Co boasted 'every conceivable style and material'. William Wren made shoe polish and Horton and Arlidge, cardboard boxes. Some seven manufacturers had come together to form Northampton Shoe Machinery Co first supplying American machines but then manufacturing them under licence. Machinery also came from the International Goodyear Shoe Machinery Company.

Other businesses made cycles and motor cars. Mulliner made the bespoke car bodies for manufacturers to add to their engine and chassis. Bassett-Loake made beautiful model trains and yachts. Importantly for the future, Smith, Major and Stevens made lifts.

The First World War saw Mulliner's factory producing munitions and military vehicles. Of far more significance, the Northampton shoe companies produced 23 million pairs of footwear for British, French and Belgian forces including infantry boots, flying boots, ski boots and canvas shoes. The other shoe manufacturers in the county topped this production at 24 million and together they made up two thirds of the British footwear output between 1914-1918.

The 1930s saw Express Lifts of Leicester buy Smith, Major and Stevens but to continue to manufacture in Northampton. Other arrivals included Rest Assured with beds and Mettoy which later manufactured Corgi toys. Mettoy was encouraged to come to Northampton by Bassett-Loake whose owners played a major role in the civic community which was keen to reduce the town's dependence on shoe making.

The Second World War saw shoe factories producing an ever increasing range of footwear, including shoes designed for deception, so flying boots which could have their uppers removed to reveal ordinary well worn shoes should their wearer be shot down in enemy territory. The Birmingham British Timken company set up a shadow factory near Northampton and this reverted to peacetime work after the war.

The post war years saw the growth of earth moving equipment supplier Blackwood Hodge (owned by house builder Bernard Sunley), but the steady decline of the mass production of shoes. Manfield was bought by the British Shoe Corporation of Leicester and I write in my blog on Leicester of the gathering of former brands into this company owned by the property developer, Charles Clore.

Avon Cosmetics was encouraged to the town in the sixties a little before its designation as a 'new town' under the third wave of such towns in the post-war era. A good number of businesses came to the 'new town'. Black & Decker, set up warehousing and distribution, as did MFI; Henry Telfer employed 2,000 in food manufacturing. The Bernard Sunley Charitable Foundation helped to fund the Blackwood Hodge Management Centre at Nene College.

In 1960 Electronics Weekly reported that 'the extended factory of Plessey Nucleonics at Northampton, officially opened in 1959, has doubled facilities for R&D is this rapidly growing field. During the year, Plessey Nucleonics received an order from the UKAEA for the supply of all nuclear instrumentation for the advanced gas-cooled reactor at Windscale.' This business eventually became part of Ultra Energy. Plessey also manufactured Connectors in their subsidiary Plessey Interconnect.

At the time of writing there are shoe factories still manufacturing in Northampton and neighbouring towns. In the town itself there are Church & Co, Crocket & Jones, Trickers, Edward Green and Jeffery-West. Outside Northampton there are Dr Martens in Wollaston, Grenson in Rushden and Barker in Earls Barton all just outside Wellingborough; then Loake in Kettering and Joseph Cheaney in nearby Desborough.

Express Lifts still has a presence in the town through its lift testing tower built in the seventies and shown in the image.

Further reading:

Cynthia Brown, Northampton 1835-1985: Shoe Town, New Town (Chichester: Phillimore, 1990)

Leicester Manufacturing History

 My exploration of British manufacturing has been sector by sector and chronological. It is time now to begin to join up the dots and explore those towns where manufacturing takes place or in some case took place. I begin with the city where I now live and seek of offer a flavour of manufacturing in this great city.

The image is of those famous sons of Leicester, David and Richard Attenborough, pictured at the University of Leicester.

Leicester’s traditional industry was hosiery with its origin in hand knitters who would work from their own homes in the city and around the county engaging the whole family in their enterprise. In this they were similar to the spinners and weavers of wool in and cotton in Lancashire.

Knitted hose began to take the place of stockings made from cloth in the Elizabethan age; Shakespeare makes reference to stockings in Henry IV (pt2, act 2, scene 2). The principal place of the trade was London close to those members of the population best able to afford that more expensive knitted product. Slowly, the hand knitted stocking gave way to the stocking knitted on a frame. In what were known as the Home Counties, framework knitters were to be found in Buckinghamshire and Surrey. Further north, into the Midlands, framework knitters began to appear in Leicester, Nottingham and Derby.

In Henson’s History of the Framework Knitters, it is suggested that by the mid-eighteenth century, a move had taken place towards the midland towns with the number of frames in Leicester exceeding those in London. It is suggested that wage costs were the significant driver and further moves would have taken place but for the demands of fashion. For the elegant in London it was essential that stockings should be a perfect colour match, something achievable only with the cloth and hosiery trades side by side. Frames were used to knit hosiery from wool, cotton and silk, with the latter producing the finest garments. By the mid nineteenth century, Nottingham had outgrown Leicester and Derby was fast catching up.

Leicester suffered from stiff competition from America where a degree of mechanisation had been introduced. We can see mechanisation seeping into the Leicester industry a little later than its northern counterparts essentially because of the greater complexity of knitting a stocking. When it came, it was from over the Atlantic where Americans had found solutions. In terms of local industry, Siobham Begley, in her book The Story of Leicester, writes how the Loughborough firm of Paget introduced power-run frames, Leicester’s Matthew Townsend invented the latch needle and Loughborough man, William Cotton, built on these developments with his Cotton Patent machine. Slowly machines were introduced and frame workers began to work in groups in a workshop setting. Pay for frame workers was bad until Corah built their factory at St Margaret’s, where, it was said, rates were 25% higher. Further impetus to the factory system came with the Education Acts where child labour was restricted and so home working became less economically viable.

Following on from hosiery came shoe making, especially for children’s shoes. This trade had prospered in nearby Northampton where it concentrated on men’s boots. Employment in Leicester’s shoe industry gradually grew and eventually overtook that in Northampton. As with hosiery, mechanisation crept in. Begley singles out Thomas Crick in Leicester making a breakthrough by riveting soles to shoes instead of stitching them. He went on to produce a machine which was later steam powered. Factory based production followed, boosted by the move of Leeds based Stead and Simpson to Leicester using an American invention, the Blake sewer, which could produce three hundred pairs of shoes a day. Leicester held on to the tradition of outworking, long embraced in hosiery, until the push of mechanisation from American essentially forced the move to factory working by the end of the nineteenth century.

In the mid nineteenth century ancillary businesses began to appear producing gussets and elastic web. More significantly, engineering businesses emerged with a focus on machinery for hosiery and shoe manufacture. Richard Rodger, in Leicester A Modern History, writes of some 7,000 male engineering workers in 1900. He lists some of the companies. Pegg’s dyeworks equipment, Phoenix Foundry for heavy casting for railways, Gimson’s Vulcan foundry on Welford Road, Gent’s clocks, Taylor & Hobson lenses and optical equipment, Pearson & Bennion boot and shoes machinery which became part of the British United Boot and Shoe Company, Wolsey Hopkins, Bentley Engineering and Mellor Bromley machines. It is fair to assume that these engineering skills encouraged Imperial Typewriters to set up in Leicester. Machine tool manufacturers Jones & Shipman set up in Leicester as did Wadkin which specialised in wood working tools. Later additions to the Leicester manufacturing scene include Thorn Lighting.

The city is also famous for Walkers Crisps and Foxes Glacier Mints.

I tell in Vehicles to Vaccines how the British commitment to excellence in textiles is evidenced by the presence of colleges devoted to teaching skills to those employed in the industry. One such was the School of Textiles in Leicester which celebrated its centenary in 1983-84 with the publication of a short history. The focus was on knitting, and the founding of the college was initiated by yarn merchants witnessing the quality of continental competitors which benefitted from formal technical education. In the second half of the twentieth century the focus moved to artificial fibres, machinery capable of producing whole garments, and textile and knitwear design. Textile manufacturing continues in Leicester albeit in reduced volumes given to move to sourcing from low wage economies.

Further reading:

Gravenor Henson, Civil, Political and Mechanical History of the Framework Knitters in Europe and America (Nottingham: Richard Sutton, 1831, reprinted 1970)
Siobhan Begley, The Story of Leicester (Brimscombe: The History Press, 2013), p.122.
Richard Rodger and Rebecca Madgin Ed’s. Leicester a Modern History (Lancaster: Carnegie Publishing, 2016)